The Ways of Nomadic Mongols

 Part 1: Environment & Human Adaptations

No. 1 Environment

a.)  The Mongols are split between various regions. The majority of Mongols live within the Mongolian Plateau which is divided by the Gobi desert from a political and geographical standpoint. The Plateau is split between two, being Inner Mongolia and Mongolia. There are a few Mongols, however, who live in Russia.

b.) There is very dry climate on the plateau and has about 8 inches of rain annually and since the plateau stretches over a wide span of land, with various altitudes, the temperature also varies depending on the location. The capital of Mongolia is Ulaanbaatar which sits at an altitude of 4,250 ft above sea level. Because of the elevation, Spring arrives later than it does to other places and the Summer time is pretty warm but cloudy with rainfall. Ulaanbaatar is known to be the coldest capital of the world so during Winter time, the temperature can drop from 23 degrees fahrenheit to -20 degrees fahrenheit. The Gobi desert has warmer weather compared to the capital which comes to show that there is no set climate.

c.) The Mongol population resides in both an urban and rural area. The Mongols have gone through various changes and the capital of Mongolia and its surrounding cities have modernized, but there are still people who prefer to live traditionally and stick to their roots. Traditionally, the Mongols were wandering herdsmen and only a few still prefer this way of life. Today’s Mongols still wander and travel around the plateau in search of water, supply, and food for not only themselves but their animals as well.

d.) The Mongolian Plateau has various landscapes and regions like high mountain plains and deserts and many rural Mongolians make use of the various plants to survive.

• The Black Saxaul: a tall shrub/small tree that grows in the desert and has been used to make sheds and used for other wood purposes. This plant is vital to animal husbandry since camels like to eat the leaves 

• Sand Rice: this plant is mainly used for its seeds and used as a substitute for grains. This plant can withstand sandy lands and high temperatures making it drought friendly. Herdsmen grind up the seed to make delicacies.

• Temple Juniper: A type of Juniper that it native to mountainous areas of Mongolia and it is recorded that natives use this branchlet to create incense that is used for religious purposes.

• Allium Altaicum: Also found in the mountainous regions of Mongolia, natives use this plant as a food item.

e.) Some animals found in the Mongolian Plateau include: gazelles, camels, the endangered Gobi bear, snow leopard, and Mongolian horse.

f.) As part of the Mongolian Plateau, the Gobi desert passes through the terrain and it being a desert means that the climate is very hot and very dry. This leads to there being little to no vegetation, making it difficult for foraging and subsistence for animals as well. Because of the harsh climates within the area, many Monolians have to migrate all year round to be able to survive in regards to weather and food.

No.2 Adaptations

- Physical Adaptations

a.) The Mongols have had to deal with harsh weather for thousands of years and historically, the Late Antique Little Ice Age (536-660 AD) resulted in crop failure and famine which still has its impacts today so a physical adaptation is adiposity which has help alter energy storage and cold resistance. This is due to the rs117799927 g-allele which allows for the creation of thermogenic brown adipose tissue which plays a huge role in resistance to cold exposure.

b.) Animal husbandry is the preferred livelihood for this culture and dating back thousands of years to the present day, Mongols depend on milk products as one of their main sources of nutrition so they have high lactase persistence genes present which allows them to consume and digest these milk products even in adulthood.

- Environmental Adaptations

a.) Gers: Nomadic Mongolians are always moving to different areas for different seasons and to protect themselves from the harsh climate, they build portable tents or “gers” . These tents are made out of a wooden frame and felt are placed on top. The felt is great to protect the inhabitant from the cold winters making it warmer and keeps the inside cool during the hot summers.

b.) Traditional clothing: The type of clothing is just as important depending on the weather. During the cold winters, men and women wear sheepskin and wool to keep warm and wearing puffy hats from different kinds of furs is popular among nomadic Mongols. During hot summer days, men still prefer to wear lighter hats to protect themselves from the sun while women like to wear scarves or shawls. Clothing is definitely lighter during summer and is usually made out of silk cloth to keep cool.

c.) Animal breeding: The Mongols depend on certain animals in order to survive. The products from these animals provide food, fur, and transportation.

Part 2: Language & Gender

No.1 Language

a.) The official language is: Khalka Mongolian

b.) This language belongs to the Ural Altaic language family.

c.) The structure in which Mongolians speak and write is different from English. The structure begins with the subject, adding in an object, and finally the predicate. Spoken Mongolian also consists of clipped tones and is a very guttural language.

d.) This culture does have a written language and much can be analyzed from its system due to its long history. Mongolian written language is very similar to written Tibetan with it being written vertically and starting at the upper left hand corner of the page. Mongolian can also be written in Cyrillic, which is the Russian alphabet or with the Roman alphabet. The written language looks like the Arabic written language but with a bit of slant. The Mongolian alphabet also has ties with the Uyghur written language, consisting of 27 consonants and 7 vowels.

No.2 Gender Roles

a.)  There are only two specific genders in Mongolian culture being men and women.

b.) The gender roles within this culture consist of men holding more power than women. Men do the hunting and tend to specific animals like cattle, horses, and camels. Once on a settlement, men build the housing, plant, and harvest crops. Younger boys first start by keeping track of herds consisting of goats and sheep. Women are in charge of more domestic tasks like collecting water, tending to the children, milking cows, making diary products, sewing and spinning wool. Although they usually do domestic chores, they do have some value in society. Mongolian households are controlled by the man of the house but when it comes to major decisions, the men may consult their wives over what should be done. Women also have the authority to lead the group of migrants to their destination during the spring and autumn.

c.) For the most part, these roles are kept in place but there are some shared roles like cooking and women can help with planting and harvesting, not to mention that the women and young children share the same roles regardless of gender.

d.) I have yet to come upon anything relating to the repercussions of gender roles mixing in this culture.

e.) In Mongolian culture, the kids are constantly exposed to various people in the tribe so they learn a lot visually from their elders which leads to them imitating them. Horseback riding is very important in their culture so they start learning how to ride at the earliest. Kids are taught their roles at a very young age and take on their responsibility at a very young age which is why by the time they’re 5 or 6, they should be tending the sheep and goats. Since the women care for their kids, they learn their mothers roles at the early stages of their life but they start doing more man roles as soon as possible and by age 13 they should be able to complete their gender roles and tasks.

f.) In regards to biology playing a role in gender roles, women are definitely seen as not as important. Woman have been marginalized in this culture and have only served to partake in domestic chores. Historically, this culture practiced husbands taking on concubines who were meant to stay home so it is understandable why this culture continues to treat women as less and men as the power holders.

g.) Mongolia is still one of the places where LGBTQ+ people are frowned upon. Although the story mentioned in the textbook doesn't fall into this category, I’d say that even if someone is born with intersexuality, then they most likely won’t be accepted into Mongolian culture. I couldn’t find any articles on intersex or lgbt people in rural Mongolia so I am not completely sure how they would be accepted. From Mongolia’s metropolitan point of view, however, there have been cases where people did come out but around 80% of people who are part of the lgbtq community haven't come out due to the taboos.

Part 3: Subsistence & Economy

No.1 Subsistence

a.) The main form of subsistence for the Mongols is a mix of crop growing and animal breeding. There are times where the Mongols plant to last them the season but they mainly focus more on the animal breeding aspect because it is more fulfilling for their society. This subsistence pattern is still widely used today and since it is vital, there are hardly any changes that might suggest that it will transition to a different pattern.

b.) Because nomadic Mongolians are always moving every season, they hardly have much time to tend to a big garden so the majority of their subsistence comes from animal products since they rely on them for their survival. Lots of meat, mainly mutton, beef, or goat is consumed and many of the products produced from their animals like yoghurt, milk, cheese, butter, etc. There are also some foragables that help to create other dishes during certain seasons. Mongols are constantly herding animals which is why there is always enough food for them throughout the seasons.

c.) The Mongols are a patriarchal society so men and boys do the majority of the outside work. Since the Mongolians are a pastoral society, the men are the ones who will herd all the animals but the women are who contribute the most in terms of handling the animals' products. So they make products like milk/butter or wool/cashmere that can be sold and they are the ones who make the decision on what to do with these products. Many women and young children accomplish the same  tasks like the domestic chores but in the Mongolian villages, children are exposed to various adults so they are helped by many to start contributing and participating in their specific roles as soon as they can walk. Herding is generally a man's task but young boys will start with “women herding animals” like sheep to get the experience but as soon as they’re old enough they can tend bigger animals like cattle and camels. Nowadays, social classes aren’t important because many of the villagers are happy with any help they can get from each other.

d.) The general nutritional health of this culture is highly reliant on the meat from their herd and the products they produce. One of the main reasons why they herd animals is because they need these animals to sustain their products whenever they move for the next season. For nomadic Mongols, this nutritional intake is perfect for them because meat allows them to gain calories and fat which is necessary to survive in the harsh winters. Many vegetables and herbs are hard to come by since the climate can be brutal and because many don’t see vegetables necessary in their diet. Today more vegetables are included in the Mongolian diet because the traditional diet lead to struma or goitre which is an enlarged thyroid which causes a swollen neck all due to iodine deficiency. Vegetables are still not as common because many prefer meat which is also difficult to obtain unless they go into cities and buy vegetables but it is being implemented into their diet a bit.

No.2 Economic System

a.) No, for many rural Mongols, their main focus in regards to food is to have enough to last them for winter. Since their winters can get very cold, they reserve as much food as they can to sustain themselves.

b.) Not applicable because they don’t create a surplus of food.

c.) The main specialization of labor for the Mongol’s is pastoralism. Domesticating animals and livestock is crucial for rural Mongolians and they’re constantly moving around to accommodate the animals.

d.) The Mongols do distribute goods and since animal products are their main source for survival they exchange animals, fur/hides for grain, tea, silk, cloth. Since Mongols are moving from place to place, there is a holiday named Naadam that allows many to gather and trade off their goods with each other.

e.) The official currency of Mongolia is the Tugrik and when rural Mongols trade they earn money and use that bit of money to spend on essentials to survive during harsh winters or on items for children.

f.) This culture does both trade directly and with currency. As mentioned many times before, animals are their livelihood so they trade their animal products for resources like grains, textiles, and manufactured goods. They usually do direct trade with other semi-nomadic Mongols who have an established house and when times get tough during the winter, Mongols will travel long ways to purchase hay for their animals. I could not find any sources where trading brought negative results and for the most part trading is beneficial for the Mongols because they acquire materials or food items that ensure subsistence.

Part 4: Marriage & Kinship

No.1 Marriage

a.) Marriage for the Mongols is mainly monogamous and values a nuclear family more than extended which is why they prefer only one spouse. However, there have been cases in the past where fraternal polyandry was practiced. It is also recorded that a widowed wife may marry the brother of her deceased husband so that she can be taken care of. The Mongols marry at a very young age where they usually get engaged at around 15 and marry at legal age being 18. Nowadays, marriage is a bit more lax and many marry around their twenties and early thirties. They also dislike the idea of marrying anyone related to them so cousin marriage was prohibited but since the 20th century, this ban of marriage between members of the same clan was lifted. The Mongols still prefer to marry outside their kin however.

b.) Back then, traditional marriages between Mongols were determined and arranged by the parents and they would receive a divination of a lama to determine if the marriage would be successful. Today, the couple can choose their relationship without the interference of their parents. Usually people marry within their own social group so herders will marry herders etc. Mentioned in the economic section, the Naadam festival is also a place where young people can find partners.

c.) Economic exchange is practiced in this culture and it goes for both genders. For the Mongolian’s marriage is the agreement between the two families so they both give something to ensure peace. There is a huge bridewealth from the family of the groom that gives livestock while there is a dowry of jewelry, clothing, and furnishing from the bride's family. The men do have “more power” than women but the women are not considered as lesser and do have respect from others.

d.) Marriage in the Mongol culture does tend to be clan exogamous which means that they marry others that are from outside their clan or village. Incest is not allowed in this culture and I couldn’t find any testimonies about it but if a girl or woman got pregnant through incest, they’d be treated in secret so we know they have an incest taboo.

e.) The Mongolian’s prefer to have a nuclear family where their household consists of a married couple and their children. Once a couple marries, they live in their own tent but usually near their parents.

f.) I couldn’t find any sources of homosexual relationships within nomadic Mongols but homosexuality is still restricted in Mongolia and many who identify as LGBTQ have yet to come out of the closet or have to be themselves in secret. There has been less stigma regarding LGBTQ in Mongolia but not yet that acceptable.

No.2 Kinship

a.) This culture follows a patriarchal descent pattern and in established clans, the male descents are thought to be related to a common grandfather or great grandfather. For the most part, men hold the most “power” and we see this in marriage aspects and daily chores. Matrilineal descent isn’t seen in this culture but that doesn’t mean that women aren’t important since they do make decisions and historically, when men married a woman and concubine the both women were considered equal. While reading I didn’t read anything relating to other descent patterns so I think they don’t practice anything else.

b.) Being a patrilineal society, the father of the family has the most authority for his household but the father’s brother comes in second when decisions need to be made. The Mongols also respect consanguine and affinal kinship and they have a term for every family member that differentiates maternal and paternal bloodlines.

c.) Inheritance also follows the patrilineal line where, although not all the time, the youngest son inherits the paternal tent and herd. Nowadays, men inherit the membership of the herding cooperative and since men are allowed to move out of their own clan group, they can use the headship and profit from it if they wish to sell near the city. However, if a divorce were to happen or if the wife or husband dies, whatever was given on their wedding day(bridewealth or dowry), is considered to be property of the wife or husband.

d.) The closest kinship system the Mongols follow would be the Iroquois system because, as mentioned previously, Mongolians distinguish maternal and paternal sides differently and generations also have a name of their own. For example, in terms of generation on the fathers lineal consanguinity, a great great grandparent will have the term qulunča while a great grandparent will have the term elünče. Maternal and paternal sides are also differentiated where grandmothers are called emege and grandfathers are called ebüge. Through the mother’s lineal consanguinity, different terms are used as well. Age also plays a role in how kin address each other. As the EGO, an older brother would be called aq-a whereas a younger brother will be called degüü.

Part 5: Social & Political Organization

No.1 Social Organizations

a.) The HRAF shows that traditional Mongolians were highly stratified and not even close to being egalitarian but over the years, this kinship system has calmed down a bit. Today’s Mongols still follow the stratified kinship system but hierarchy and gender isn’t as repressed as it once was.

b.) Does not apply

c.) Gender is still the biggest role in the Mongol’s stratified system since they do follow a patrilineal lineage. Men “call all the shots” and do the most decision making but just like I mentioned previously, women are now able to make some decisions. Women however, are treated with more respect if they have more than two children so this society is not 100% stratified but I also wouldn’t say it’s egalitarian as well. In today’s society, one can improve their status level since there are programs that have been issued for nomadic children to attend school in the city which gives them the opportunity to go out of their social bubble and explore options in different fields of work. The children do go back home but they can decide if they want to continue being herders (which quite a few still do) or live in the city.

No.2 Political Structure

a.) When it comes to nomadic Mongolians, there really isn’t much of a political structure going on since each family moves all year round. I haven’t found any sources that tell of a village chief and it is mainly the husband of the family that everyone follows.

b.) The only sources I could find on the political structure for this culture is in regards to the nation's government and not for how nomadic Mongols transfer their power.

c.) It is Mongolia’s government that determines the laws and punishments for its citizens. Unlike others with tribes and clans where they have their own power structure within, Mongols usually follow the central government.

No.3 The Role of Violence

a.) Domestic abuse is commonly seen within this culture. Not only is this form of violence seen in rural Mongolia but also in the city and 1 in 3 women are said to have experienced some type of abuse. For nomadic Mongols, many women are physically abused by their partners by being chased by horses or being lashed out at with a horse whip. This happens quite often and these women are forced to keep shut and feel that they can’t report the incident because it’s always the woman's fault and not the man’s. If a woman were to speak up or if she were to go to therapy, (which is still a taboo in Mongolia) it is seen as negative because the rest of society, being men, are against treating women gently.

b.) Since Mongolia is a very poor nation, human trafficking is a huge problem which might explain the high rates of rape and sex-trafficking. Rape is very prominent and spousal rape is also very common which results in even less people reporting these cases. Due to social and cultural norms, and the lack of judicial procedures, less people are inclined to report the crime. With the amount of times this happens and nothing being done about it makes on to believe that people view rape as something positive since they can easily get away with it and no consequences will befall them.

Part 6: Belief System & the Arts

No.1 Religion

a.) There are many religions that the Mongols follow and there are also a few who do not have any religious affiliations. The religions that are mainly followed in this culture are Tibetan Buddhism and Shamanism. There are a few other religions like Christianity that may be practiced within the Mongols but it’s very minuscule compared to the two mentioned above. Mongolian’s practice Buddhism a bit differently than normal in the way that their costumes, rituals, chants, etc. stand out from other Buddhist countries.

b.) Because this culture follows two religions, those who practice Tibetan Buddhism, consider the Dalai Lama their spiritual leader. Upon further research, Buddhism does not follow a god or deity and is “nontheistic.” However, another form of religion the Mongols follow is animism where they believe everything in the environment has spiritual essence.

c.) Historically, Mongols were Shamanists but around the later half of the 16th century, Tibetan Buddhism was introduced because Altan Khan allowed the teaching of the Dalai Lama. Many Tibetan Buddhist monasteries were built during this time but in the Soviet era, Communism was present and prevented religious activity so these monasteries were closed. The collapse of the Soviet Union allowed for religion to come back and flourish once again. The Mongolians' use of Tibetan Buddhism does include a lot of Shamantic symbols and rites so both religions have survived.

d.) Although this ritual is no longer practiced today, I feel that a practice that is unique for this religion and culture is how they conduct their funerals. With Tibetan Buddhism being introduced, “sky burials” were also introduced where instead of burying the dead, the deceased were placed out in the wilderness for animals to consume. This form of burial is very common among wandering herders and it is believed that when the body is eaten by wolves or vultures, the soul of the deceased will rise to heaven. If the body is still found intact after a while, then it is said that the soul was unlucky and was not accepted in heaven. What is practiced today is the belief that everything in the next world is reversed so deceased men are placed on the right side of the yurt since that is originally the woman’s side and vice versa. Another unique ritual for this religion is the Ovoos. Ovoos are scattered around all and are sacred landmarks that are piles of stone with prayer scarves attached to them. The Ovoos are thought to be sites where spirits dwell and some are even marks of annual sacrifices. When encountering an Ovoo, one must walk around the structure three times, add three stones to it, and make a prayer. It is said that traditionally, sacrificial offering ceremonies were held for Heaven, to Fire, to Ancestors, and to Ovoos.

e.) Religion is important for this culture especially for nomadic herders since they can pray to Ovoos for protection and a successful season. Mongolia has had a long history with religion so it is still present today and their beliefs are deeply rooted through decades of rituals. Many people have altars in their yurt to pray so we can see religion is vital to their lives and historically we know that even when Communist from the Soviet Union invaded and prohibited religious practices, the Mongols would secretly continue with their religion. So having it happened already, I feel that the Mongols would feel lost if there was no religion or not being able to pray.

No.2 The Arts

a.) Artwork:  One piece of artwork that is highly common in this culture is intricate wood carvings that can be found on dressers, instruments, utensils, etc. The same can be applied to metalwork that decorate important but everyday tools. A great example of this is the importance of horses for the Mongolians. Art can be found on horse whips, saddles, bridle, etc. and art has always been important for this culture which is why one purpose of art is practicality. Men also like to carry knives with beautiful metal carvings that are used to slaughter animals. Snuff-bottles are also very valuable and are made from gold, copper, agate, jade, coral, or amber. The purpose of snuff-bottles are not only to keep powdered tobacco but is a way to greet strangers and welcome them.

b.) Music:  Music also plays an important role for this culture because it encapsulates life out in nature. For the Mongols, singing songs can be sung for every aspect of life like big celebrations or simple tasks like mare milk brewing, brushing cashmere, and wool cutting to name a few. The Mongols do overtone singing which comes from the throat and can produce “long songs” which is a song that can have ten words but are stretched out to create melody that can last four minutes. The purpose of this is to celebrate the beauty of a simple life and even if a baby cries, that is more than enough reason to sing.

c.) Performance: Dance has been deeply rooted in Mongolian history and is still practiced today. Just like music, dance is connected to nomadic living and is usually confined to performing in small spaces with energetic hand and shoulder movements. This form of dance is used to express everyday aspects of life like household labor, traditions, and customs. 

d.) Religious Art: Religion is very prominent in the Mongol lifestyle so in every form of art, religion is present. In normal artwork, it is common to see Buddha and Buddhist motifs carved, painted, or embroidered. Religion has always been important but many historical paintings have been lost when Communists arrived and destroyed anything relating to Mongol religion. Historically in performance arts, Mongolian dances were used for rituals and ceremonies that were performed to imitate the movement of deities, mystical animals, and movement from nature.

Week 7: Cultural Change

No.1 Cultural Change

a.) Coal mining has been an increasing issue near the Gobi desert and the Chinese have set their eyes on excavating the minerals from the place but this puts nomadic Mongols at a huge disadvantage and danger. There is a family of herders who have lived and moved within the Gobi desert for 200 years but lately with all the construction leading to China, the environment has suffered tremendously. The result of this is that there is no longer grass for animals to feed on and the gravel that is left on the newly constructed road, is being consumed by these animals. When herders cut open the innards of these animals all they see in black so the animals go to waste. Coal is a natural mineral that can be used for various things and since it’s used constantly there always needs to be plenty of sources to acquire it so to prevent a shortage of this crucial mineral, companies dig them up. This can be seen as a positive aspect but in my opinion the negatives far outweigh the positives.

b.) Unfortunately, I’d say that this culture is in danger of losing its cultural identity. With the introduction of a market economy, many nomadic Mongols are finding it hard to make a living and are moving to the cities to start a new life. Back then, herders had no issue with their pastoral lives but because Russia and China introduced the free-market, these nomads have had a hard time making ends meet. Not only that, but climate changes are making it harder for these herders to keep their animals alive.

c.) Since this culture is a pastoral society, the role it plays in the modern world is that it provides large quantities of milk products and meat. However, because of modernization and being asked high demands of products from companies, nomadic herders no longer care for their livestock as they used to and have been forced to integrate medicine, selective breeding, and artificial insemination to reach the demand of more animal products. After reading various sources I find answering the second part of this question very hard because on one hand, the Mongolian diet is mainly meat which is why herders have a strong influence. On the other hand however, many people born into nomadic herders are moving out into the city to chase new job opportunities so there has been a decline of rural living, making one think that there isn’t a strong influence.

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